Pulmonary Physiology by Michael G. Levitzky: A Comprehensive Guide for Medical Students and Residents
- What are the main topics covered in the book by Levitzky? - How is the book organized and what are its features? H2: Function and Structure of the Respiratory System - The components of the respiratory system and their functions - The anatomy and histology of the respiratory tract - The respiratory zone and the conducting zone - The alveolar-capillary membrane and gas exchange H2: Mechanics of Breathing - The concept of pressure gradients and airflow - The role of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles in breathing - The lung volumes and capacities - The compliance and elastance of the lungs and chest wall - The work of breathing and energy expenditure H2: Alveolar Ventilation - The definition and measurement of alveolar ventilation - The factors affecting alveolar ventilation - The concept of dead space and its types - The alveolar gas equation and its applications H2: Blood Flow to the Lung - The structure and function of the pulmonary circulation - The pulmonary vascular resistance and its determinants - The regional distribution of blood flow in the lung - The effects of gravity, posture, and lung volume on blood flow - The hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and its role in matching ventilation and perfusion H2: Ventilation-Perfusion Relationships - The concept of ventilation-perfusion ratio and its normal range - The causes and consequences of ventilation-perfusion mismatch - The methods of assessing ventilation-perfusion relationships - The mechanisms of compensating for ventilation-perfusion imbalance H2: Diffusion of Gases - The physical principles of gas diffusion across a membrane - The factors affecting diffusion rate and capacity - The measurement and interpretation of pulmonary diffusing capacity - The causes and effects of diffusion impairment H2: Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in the Blood - The forms and proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood - The role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport and binding - The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve and its modifiers - The role of bicarbonate, carbonic anhydrase, and chloride shift in carbon dioxide transport - The carbon dioxide dissociation curve and its modifiers H2: Acid-Base Balance - The definition and importance of acid-base balance - The sources and classification of acids and bases in the body - The buffer systems in the blood and tissues - The role of the lungs and kidneys in acid-base regulation - The diagnosis and management of acid-base disorders H2: Control of Breathing - The neural pathways and centers involved in breathing control - The types and locations of chemoreceptors that sense changes in blood gases and pH - The effects of hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidosis on breathing control - The reflexes that modulate breathing in response to lung stretch, irritants, pain, emotion, etc. - The adaptation to chronic changes in blood gases and pH Article Introduction
Pulmonary physiology is the study of how the lungs and the respiratory system function in health and disease. It is a fundamental topic for anyone who wants to understand the principles of clinical medicine, especially in the fields of internal medicine, anesthesiology, pediatrics, pulmonary medicine, and critical care.
Pulmonary Physiology (Lange Physiology) by Michael G. Levitzky
One of the best books that covers pulmonary physiology in depth and clarity is Pulmonary Physiology (Lange Physiology) by Michael G. Levitzky. This book has been a trusted resource for medical students and residents for more than three decades, and it has been updated and revised to reflect the latest advances and research in the field.
The book is organized into 11 chapters that cover all the major aspects of pulmonary physiology, such as the function and structure of the respiratory system, the mechanics of breathing, the alveolar ventilation, the blood flow to the lung, the ventilation-perfusion relationships, the diffusion of gases, the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, the acid-base balance, the control of breathing, the nonrespiratory functions of the lung, and the respiratory system under stress. Each chapter includes learning objectives, summaries of key concepts, study questions, clinical examples, illustrations of essential concepts, and suggested readings. The book also provides detailed explanations of physiologic mechanisms and demonstrates how they apply to pathologic states.
In this article, we will summarize the main points and highlights of each chapter of the book and provide some examples and tables to illustrate them. We hope that this article will help you to learn and review pulmonary physiology in an easy and enjoyable way.
Function and Structure of the Respiratory System
The respiratory system consists of two main components: the respiratory tract and the lungs. The respiratory tract is divided into two parts: the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, the nasal cavity, the pharynx, and the larynx. The lower respiratory tract includes the trachea, the bronchi, the bronchioles, and the alveoli. The lungs are paired organs that occupy most of the thoracic cavity. They are surrounded by a double-layered membrane called the pleura.
The main functions of the respiratory system are:
To provide a route for air to enter and exit the lungs
To filter, humidify, and warm the inspired air
To facilitate gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries
To transport oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the tissues
To regulate acid-base balance by adjusting ventilation
To participate in nonrespiratory functions such as metabolism, immunity, endocrinology, etc.
The anatomy and histology of the respiratory tract vary according to its function. The upper respiratory tract is lined by a mucous membrane that contains ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells, mucus glands, lymphoid tissue, etc. The lower respiratory tract is divided into two zones: the conducting zone and the respiratory zone. The conducting zone consists of structures that conduct air to and from the alveoli without participating in gas exchange. It includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles. The conducting zone is lined by a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium that contains goblet cells, mucus glands, cartilage, smooth muscle, etc. The respiratory zone consists of structures that participate in gas exchange. It includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli. The respiratory zone is lined by a simple squamous epithelium that contains type I alveolar cells, type II alveolar cells, alveolar macrophages, etc.
The alveolar-capillary membrane is the thin barrier that separates the alveolar air space from the pulmonary capillary blood. It consists of four layers: the alveolar epithelium, the alveolar basement membrane, the capillary basement membrane, and the capillary endothelium. The alveolar-capillary membrane is the site of gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries. The gases diffuse across the membrane according to their partial pressure gradients.
Mechanics of Breathing
Breathing is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs. It is driven by the changes in pressure gradients between the alveoli and the atmosphere. The pressure gradient is created by the contraction and relaxation of the respiratory muscles, mainly the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts, it flattens and lowers, increasing the vertical dimension of the thoracic cavity. The intercostal muscles are located between the ribs. When they contract, they elevate the ribs and sternum, increasing the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thoracic cavity.
The expansion of the thoracic cavity causes a decrease in the intrapleural pressure, which is the pressure within the pleural space. The intrapleural pressure is normally negative relative to the atmospheric pressure, due to the opposing forces of the lung recoil and the chest wall expansion. The decrease in the intrapleural pressure causes a decrease in the alveolar pressure, which is the pressure within the alveoli. The alveolar pressure becomes lower than the atmospheric pressure, creating a pressure gradient that drives air into the lungs. This is called inspiration.
The relaxation of the respiratory muscles causes a decrease in the thoracic cavity volume, which causes an increase in the intrapleural pressure and the alveolar pressure. The alveolar pressure becomes higher than the atmospheric pressure, creating a pressure gradient that drives air out of the lungs. This is called expiration.
The lung volumes and capacities are the measurements of the amount of air in the lungs at different phases of the respiratory cycle. They can be measured by a device called a spirometer. The main lung volumes and capacities are:
Tidal volume (TV): The volume of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath.
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled above the tidal volume.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): The maximum volume of air that can be exhaled below the tidal volume.
Residual volume (RV): The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a maximal expiration.
Vital capacity (VC): The maximum volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs. It is equal to TV + IRV + ERV.
Inspiratory capacity (IC): The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal expiration. It is equal to TV + IRV.
Functional residual capacity (FRC): The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a normal expiration. It is equal to ERV + RV.
Total lung capacity (TLC): The maximum volume of air that can be contained in the lungs. It is equal to VC + RV.
The compliance and elastance are the properties of the lungs and chest wall that determine their ability to expand and recoil. Compliance is the measure of the ease with which the lungs and chest wall can be stretched. It is defined as the change in volume per unit change in pressure. Elastance is the measure of the tendency of the lungs and chest wall to return to their original shape after being stretched. It is defined as the change in pressure per unit change in volume. Compliance and elastance are inversely related: high compliance means low elastance, and vice versa.
The work of breathing and energy expenditure are the measures of the effort required to breathe. The work of breathing is the product of the change in pressure and the change in volume during breathing. It depends on several factors, such as lung compliance, airway resistance, lung elastic recoil, etc. The energy expenditure is the amount of oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide produced by the respiratory muscles during breathing. It depends on several factors, such as respiratory rate, tidal volume, metabolic rate, etc.
Alveolar Ventilation
Alveolar ventilation is the amount of air that reaches the alveoli per unit time. It is an important indicator of the adequacy of gas exchange and the regulation of blood gases. Alveolar ventilation can be calculated by multiplying the tidal volume minus the dead space volume by the respiratory rate. The dead space volume is the portion of the tidal volume that does not participate in gas exchange. It includes anatomic dead space, which is the volume of the conducting zone, and physiologic dead space, which is the volume of alveoli that are ventilated but not perfused.
Article (continued) The factors that affect alveolar ventilation are:
The respiratory rate: The number of breaths per minute. It is determined by the neural control of breathing and the feedback from the chemoreceptors and other receptors.
The tidal volume: The volume of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath. It is determined by the neural control of breathing and the compliance and elastance of the lungs and chest wall.
The dead space volume: The portion of the tidal volume that does not participate in gas exchange. It is determined by the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory tract and the ventilation-perfusion relationships.
The alveolar gas equation is an equation that relates the alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (PAO2) to the inspired partial pressure of oxygen (PIO2), the alveolar ventilation (VA), and the carbon dioxide production (VCO2). It can be written as:
PAO2 = PIO2 - (VCO2 / VA) x R
where R is the respiratory quotient, which is the ratio of carbon dioxide production to oxygen consumption. The alveolar gas equation can be used to estimate the PAO2 when the arterial blood gas analysis is not available, or to assess the causes of hypoxemia (low arterial partial pressure of oxygen) by comparing the measured and calculated PAO2.
Blood Flow to the Lung
Blood flow to the lung is also known as pulmonary blood flow or pulmonary circulation. It is the movement of blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs and back to the left atrium of the heart. The pulmonary circulation has several functions, such as:
To provide a route for gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries
To filter, metabolize, and clear substances from the systemic circulation
To serve as a reservoir for blood volume
To regulate pulmonary vascular resistance and blood pressure
The structure and function of the pulmonary circulation are different from those of the systemic circulation. The pulmonary circulation has a lower pressure, a higher compliance, a lower resistance, and a more even distribution of blood flow than the systemic circulation. The pulmonary circulation also has a unique response to hypoxia, which is to constrict rather than dilate its vessels.
The pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) is the resistance to blood flow offered by the pulmonary vasculature. It is defined as the ratio of the pressure difference between the pulmonary artery and the left atrium to the cardiac output. The PVR depends on several factors, such as the length and radius of the vessels, the number and arrangement of the vessels, the viscosity of the blood, and the alveolar and vascular pressures.
The regional distribution of blood flow in the lung is not uniform, but varies according to the gravitational, postural, and mechanical factors. The lung can be divided into three zones based on the relationship between the alveolar pressure (PA), the arterial pressure (Pa), and the venous pressure (Pv). These zones are:
Zone 1: PA > Pa > Pv. This zone has no blood flow because the alveolar pressure exceeds the arterial pressure and collapses the capillaries. This zone normally does not exist in a healthy lung, but may occur in conditions such as hypovolemia, positive pressure ventilation, etc.
Zone 2: Pa > PA > Pv. This zone has intermittent blood flow because the arterial pressure exceeds the alveolar pressure only during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle. This zone is usually located in the upper regions of an upright lung.
Zone 3: Pa > Pv > PA. This zone has continuous blood flow because the arterial pressure exceeds the alveolar pressure throughout the cardiac cycle. This zone is usually located in the lower regions of an upright lung.
The effects of gravity, posture, and lung volume on blood flow are related to the regional differences in alveolar and vascular pressures. Gravity causes a hydrostatic pressure gradient along the vertical axis of an upright lung, resulting in higher pressures and higher blood flow in the lower regions than the upper regions. Posture affects the orientation of the lung relative to gravity, changing the distribution of blood flow accordingly. Lung volume affects the alveolar and vascular pressures by altering the lung and chest wall mechanics, resulting in higher pressures and lower blood flow at high lung volumes than low lung volumes.
The hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) is a unique response of the pulmonary circulation to low alveolar oxygen tension. It is a local reflex that causes the constriction of the pulmonary arterioles in areas of low alveolar oxygen, diverting blood flow to areas of high alveolar oxygen. The HPV helps to match ventilation and perfusion and to maintain optimal gas exchange. The HPV is mediated by several factors, such as smooth muscle contraction, endothelial release of vasoactive substances, neural and hormonal influences, etc.
Ventilation-Perfusion Relationships
Ventilation-perfusion relationships are the interactions between the alveolar ventilation (V) and the pulmonary blood flow (Q) in different regions of the lung. The ventilation-perfusion ratio (V/Q) is the ratio of alveolar ventilation to pulmonary blood flow in a given region. The V/Q ratio reflects the efficiency of gas exchange and the regulation of blood gases in that region.
The normal range of V/Q ratio is between 0.8 and 1.2, meaning that ventilation and perfusion are approximately matched. However, the V/Q ratio varies widely in different regions of the lung, depending on several factors, such as gravity, posture, lung volume, etc. The V/Q ratio is usually higher in the upper regions than the lower regions of an upright lung, because ventilation decreases less than perfusion from top to bottom.
The causes and consequences of ventilation-perfusion mismatch are related to the deviations from the normal V/Q ratio. Ventilation-perfusion mismatch occurs when ventilation and perfusion are not matched in a given region, resulting in impaired gas exchange and abnormal blood gases. The causes of ventilation-perfusion mismatch include various pathologic conditions that affect either ventilation or perfusion or both, such as airway obstruction, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary edema, etc. The consequences of ventilation-perfusion mismatch include hypoxemia, hypercapnia, respiratory acidosis or alkalosis, etc.
The methods of assessing ventilation-perfusion relationships include various tests that measure the distribution and adequacy of ventilation and perfusion in the lung. Some of these methods are:
The arterial blood gas analysis: A test that measures the partial pressures and concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. It provides information about the overall gas exchange and acid-base balance in the body.
The alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient: A calculation that estimates the difference between the alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (PAO2) and the arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2). It reflects the degree of ventilation-perfusion mismatch and diffusion impairment in the lung.
The ventilation-perfusion scan: A test that uses radioactive tracers to visualize the distribution of ventilation and perfusion in the lung. It can detect areas of low or high V/Q ratio and diagnose conditions such as pulmonary embolism.
The multiple inert gas elimination technique: A test that uses a mixture of inert gases with different solubilities to measure the distribution of ventilation-perfusion ratios in the lung. It can quantify the extent and severit